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Authored By: Dr. Newal Chaudhary, Assistant Professor and Chief of Student Welfare, Nepal Law Campus, Tribhuvan University, Exhibition Road, Kathmandu, Nepal,

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ABSTRACT:

“In the contemporary digital landscape, the proliferation of cybercrime transcends geographical boundaries, demanding a united, interdisciplinary approach for effective mitigation. This article embarks on an extensive exploration of the multifaceted challenge posed by cybercrime, underscored by the indispensable role of interdisciplinary collaboration, melding law, ethics, and technology. It offers a meticulous analysis of the ever-evolving global cybercrime landscape, presenting a vivid panorama of the diverse forms of cyber threats and their profound, often cascading, consequences.  As the digital realm knows no territorial confines, the article delves into the necessity of a synchronized global response, highlighting the importance of harmonized legislative frameworks across countries. It emphasizes that international cooperation is not merely an option but an imperative in the crafting of effective cybercrime laws, enabling nations to stay ahead of the relentless tide of cyber threats.  Within this framework, the article dissects the shared challenges faced by nations in their endeavor to combat cybercrime. These challenges encompass the pervasive lack of public awareness concerning cyber threats, the intricate legal hurdles entailed in addressing emerging cybercrimes, and the daunting shortage of skilled cyber security professionals. 

Through comprehensive analysis, the article underscores that these challenges are not isolated to a single nation but are universally experienced, thus demanding a global, cooperative approach.  Furthermore, the article delves into the potential global repercussions of inaction. It navigates through the economic, societal, and ethical impacts that reverberate across borders when cybercrime remains unchecked. By elucidating these impacts, the article conveys the urgency of proactive, collaborative strategies on a global scale.  Amid these challenges, the article also explores the prospect of collaborative solutions and the potential for countries to emerge as global hubs for cyber security services. It conducts an in-depth analysis of government incentives, regulatory frameworks, and research investments that are instrumental in nurturing a thriving cyber-security industry, ultimately contributing to a safer digital realm for all.  In its final sections, the article lays out actionable recommendations that reflect the intersection of law, ethics, and technology. These recommendations cater to governments, businesses, and individuals alike, with subtopics encompassing the integration of legal, ethical, and technological approaches, the fortification of legislative frameworks, the elevation of cyber threat awareness, investment in cyber security education, and the fostering of international cooperation.  In conclusion, this article underlines that the safeguarding of global digital infrastructures necessitates a unified, interdisciplinary approach. It is a call to action, emphasizing the critical importance of collective effort and interdisciplinary collaboration in the relentless pursuit of a secure digital future”.

Keywords: Cybercrime, Interdisciplinary, Global, Legislation, Cybersecurity, Collaboration, Awareness

I. INTRODUCTION:

In our modern digital world, there’s a growing danger that affects everyone—cybercrime. This isn’t just a local problem; it’s a global threat that affects countries, businesses, and individuals worldwide. It’s like a shadow lurking in the corners of the internet, ready to strike when we least expect it. Cybercrime has become a significant problem in all worlds. The term “cybercrime” was introduced after the latest evolution in the computer industry and networks. The General Assembly of the United Nations by resolutions dated 30th January, 1997 followed the version Law on Electronic Commerce permitted via way of means of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law.[1] Cybercrimes are considered a major risk because they can have devastating effects like financial losses, breaches of sensitive data, failure of systems, and also, it can affect an organization’s reputation[2]. As more and more digital people and businesses are relying on digital technology, the threat of cybercrime has increased. Cybercrime is a crime performed through the computer, which is connected to the internet and the devices, which run and operate through the internet. As the use of technology is increasing, there is also an unprecedented rise in cybercrime[3]. Cybercrime can have a devastating impact on individuals, businesses, and the economy.  To combat this shadowy menace effectively, we can’t rely on just one discipline or approach. We need to bring together different areas of expertise, like law, ethics, and technology. Cybercrime can be defined as “The illegal usage of any communication device to commit or facilitate in committing any illegal act”[4]. Think of it as assembling a team of heroes with unique powers to fight a common enemy.  This interdisciplinary approach is crucial because cybercrime isn’t just about hacking and stealing data. It involves complex legal questions, ethical dilemmas, and the ever-evolving world of technology. All these elements are intertwined in a way that requires a united front to tackle.  Now, why is this such a big deal on a global scale? Well, picture our world today. We communicate, work, shop, and socialize online more than ever before. Our digital lives are connected to every corner of the globe. So, when cybercriminals strike, the effects ripple far and wide.  Imagine if you lived in a house, and someone broke in, stealing your most valuable possessions. Now, multiply that by millions of houses, and you start to understand the scale of cybercrime. It’s like a crime wave that knows no borders, affecting people and nations worldwide.  In this article, we’re going to dive deep into the world of cybercrime. We’ll explore the different ways cybercriminals operate, from scams and hacking to data breaches. We’ll also look at how law, ethics, and technology all play a role in this ongoing battle.  But it’s not just about understanding the problem. We’re also going to talk about solutions. We’ll explore how countries can work together to create laws and regulations that make it harder for cybercriminals to operate freely. We’ll discuss the challenges we face in fighting cybercrime and how we can overcome them.  Importantly, we’ll also highlight the consequences of not taking action. Just like any crime, cybercrime has real-world impacts. It can harm economies, disrupt lives, and erode trust in our digital world.  Fight against cybercrime isn’t a battle we can fight alone—it’s a global mission that demands teamwork, innovation, and a commitment to securing our digital future.

II. UNDERSTANDING THE CYBERCRIME LANDSCAPE:

In our digital age, the battlefield isn’t just physical; it’s virtual, and it’s vast. Cybersecurity is no longer confined to protecting individual devices or networks; it has evolved into a dynamic ecosystem that encompasses interconnected systems, cloud infrastructure, internet of things (IoT) devices, and critical infrastructure[5]. Cybercrime, also called computer crime, the use of a computer as an instrument to further illegal ends, such as committing fraud, trafficking in child pornography and intellectual property, stealing identities, or violating privacy. As the Britannica Encyclopedia states that, cybercrime as ‘the use of a computer as an instrument or device to further illegal ends or to perform any illegal activity, such as practicing fraud, performing trafficking in child pornography and damaging the intellectual property, stealing identities or personal information, or violating privacy of individual with leaking its privacy over the internet or networks[6]. Cybercrime, especially through the Internet, has grown in importance as the computer has become central to commerce, entertainment, and government. Cybercrime, like a shape-shifting adversary, continually evolves, becoming more sophisticated and pervasive with each passing day. Imagine the internet as a vast city, teeming with people and businesses[7]. Now, picture hidden alleyways where cybercriminals lurk, armed with powerful tools and strategies. This is the evolving landscape of cybercrime—a landscape that spans the globe, constantly changing.  Cybercriminals adapt quickly. They find new ways to breach defenses and exploit vulnerabilities in our digital world. It’s a game of cat and mouse, where the mice are clever and the cats relentless. Understanding this landscape is crucial, like knowing the terrain of a battlefield.

Within this digital landscape, there are different breeds of threats, each with its own modus operandi:

• Malware: Think of malware as the sneakiest spies in the digital world. These are malicious software programs designed to infiltrate and damage computers or networks. They can steal your personal information, spy on your activities, or even hold your data hostage until you pay a ransom.
• Phishing: Phishing is like a cunning impersonator who tricks you into revealing your secrets. Cybercriminals create fake emails or websites that appear trustworthy, aiming to steal your login credentials, credit card information, or sensitive data.
• Data Breaches: Data breaches are like digital heists where cybercriminals break into databases and steal massive amounts of information. This can include personal data, financial records, and even classified government files. The fallout from a data breach can be devastating, affecting millions of people and causing financial havoc.

The consequences of cybercrimes are far-reaching and can be likened to ripples in a pond. These ripples extend beyond the immediate victims to affect individuals, businesses, and even entire economies:

• Individuals: For individuals, cybercrimes can result in financial loss, identity theft, emotional distress, and a loss of trust in online interactions. Imagine having your savings wiped out, your identity stolen, or your personal photos and information exposed to the world.
• Businesses: Businesses are prime targets for cybercriminals. An attack can disrupt operations, lead to data loss, tarnish reputation, and result in financial losses that can be catastrophic. In some cases, it can even lead to bankruptcy.
• Economies: On a larger scale, the impact of cybercrime can be felt at the national and global levels. It can erode confidence in digital systems, affect trade, and incur enormous costs for governments and businesses alike. It’s like a tax on the digital economy that no one wants to pay.

III. THE INTERSECTION OF LAW, ETHICS AND TECHNOLOGY:

Cyber criminals employ intricate expertise to carry out offences like hacking, identity theft, and AI-enabled attacks. Their technical prowess and cunning allow them to discretely transverse digital boundaries[8]. In the battle against cybercrime, we enter a realm where the worlds of law, ethics, and technology converge. Understanding this intersection is akin to deciphering a complex puzzle where each piece is essential for effective solutions.

Imagine this intersection as a bustling marketplace where laws, ethics, and technology interact and influence each other constantly.

• Laws: Laws provide the framework for what is permissible and what is not in cyberspace. They create the boundaries that guide our digital behavior and define what actions are criminal. Legal systems must adapt to the ever-changing landscape of technology and ethical considerations.
• Ethics: Ethics represent the moral compass of the digital world. They dictate what is right and wrong in our interactions, both online and offline. Ethical considerations extend to questions like how we treat personal data, respect privacy, and act responsibly in the digital realm.
• Technology: Technology forms the very fabric of cyberspace. It’s both the weapon of cybercriminals and the shield of cybersecurity experts. It continually evolves, offering new tools for both offense and defense. Understanding technology is vital to stay ahead in the fight against cybercrime.

Think of the intersection of law, ethics, and technology as a bridge—a bridge that connects the theoretical (law and ethics) with the practical (technology). To combat cybercrime effectively, these disciplines must align and work in harmony:

• Legal Frameworks: Laws need to adapt to the evolving digital landscape. This means crafting legislation that not only addresses current cybercrimes but also anticipates future threats. It involves harmonizing laws across borders to ensure a unified response to cybercriminals.
• Ethical Guidelines: Ethical principles guide our behavior in cyberspace. These principles inform how we develop and use technology responsibly. Ethical considerations can help shape technology to ensure it respects privacy, security, and human rights.
• Technological Advancements: Technology is at the forefront of both offense and defense in the world of cybercrime. Innovations in cybersecurity tools, artificial intelligence, and encryption can be powerful allies in the fight against cybercriminals. They can help detect threats, protect data, and respond to attacks.

Consider this intersection as a crossroads where real-world problems meet practical solutions:

• Data Privacy Laws: Laws like the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) exemplify the intersection. GDPR places legal requirements on organizations to protect individuals’ data. It’s a legal framework (law) driven by ethical considerations of privacy, and it necessitates technological solutions for compliance.
• Ethical Hacking: Ethical hackers, or “white hat” hackers, are individuals who use their technical expertise to uncover vulnerabilities in systems before malicious hackers do. This practice blends technology, ethics, and legal agreements, demonstrating how all three areas intersect.
• Cybersecurity Policies: Governments and organizations worldwide develop cybersecurity policies that involve legal compliance, ethical considerations, and technological implementation. These policies aim to create a safe digital environment and respond to cyber threats effectively.

Understanding and navigating this intersection is crucial because it’s where solutions to cybercrime are born. It’s where laws must adapt, ethics must guide behavior, and technology must evolve to safeguard our digital world. Without this alignment, the battle against cybercrime would be like navigating treacherous terrain without a map or compass. 

IV. LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORKS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE:

The legislative frameworks surrounding cybercrime are like the rules of engagement in the digital world. They provide the legal foundation for addressing cyber threats and ensuring that cybercriminals face consequences for their actions. But in a world without borders, creating effective laws and regulations is a formidable challenge. Imagine cybercriminals as globetrotters, traversing the digital realm with ease. They can launch attacks from one corner of the world, targeting victims on the opposite side. This global reach highlights the need for legislation that can effectively cross borders to combat these threats.

• National Jurisdictions: Each country has its own legal system, which can be vastly different from others. What’s legal in one country might be a crime in another. This discrepancy creates challenges in prosecuting cybercriminals who operate internationally.
• Extraterritoriality: To address cross-border cybercrimes, many countries have adopted extraterritorial laws. These laws allow them to prosecute individuals who commit cybercrimes against their citizens, even if the criminals are located in another country. However, navigating the legal intricacies of extradition and international cooperation remains challenging.

Harmonization is like trying to create a universal language for cybercrime legislation. It involves aligning the legal frameworks of different countries to ensure a consistent and coordinated response to cyber threats.

• International Agreements: Some countries have entered into international agreements and treaties to facilitate cooperation in combatting cybercrime. Examples include the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime and the European Union’s Cybercrime Directive. These agreements promote a shared understanding of legal standards and procedures.
• Challenges in Harmonization: Despite the efforts to harmonize laws, differences in legal traditions, cultural norms, and political priorities can create hurdles. Achieving consensus on the definition of cybercrimes and the penalties for them can be a protracted process.

Think of the legal challenges in combatting cybercrime as intricate mazes. Cybercriminals often exploit legal gaps, jurisdictional issues, and the anonymity provided by the internet.

• Cross-Border Investigations: Investigating cybercrimes often involves crossing borders, which can be complex and time-consuming. Gathering evidence that spans multiple jurisdictions requires international cooperation and adherence to legal protocols.
• Defining and Updating Laws: Cybercrime is a moving target. New types of cyber threats emerge regularly. This necessitates a continuous process of defining and updating laws to address evolving tactics and technologies.

To understand the effectiveness of legislative frameworks on a global scale, consider these real-world examples:

• Europol: Europol, the European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Cooperation, facilitates collaboration among EU member states in combatting cybercrime. It exemplifies how regional cooperation can strengthen the legal response to cyber threats.
• Interpol: Interpol, the International Criminal Police Organization, operates globally to combat cybercrime. It assists member countries in sharing information and coordinating investigations, demonstrating the importance of international organizations in this arena.

Legislative frameworks are the backbone of our defense against cybercrime, but they must adapt to the global nature of the digital world. The challenge lies in harmonizing these frameworks, addressing legal gaps, and facilitating international cooperation to create a united front against cybercriminals who know no borders. 

V. SHARED CHALLNGES IN COMBATING CYBER CRIME:

In our journey to protect the digital realm from cyber threats, we encounter shared challenges that transcend borders. These challenges, faced by nations around the world, underscore the complexity of the battle against cybercrime.  Imagine a world where cyber threats are like invisible adversaries lurking in the shadows, ready to strike. These adversaries don’t discriminate; they target individuals, businesses, and governments alike. The challenges we face in countering them are universal.

1. Lack of Public Awareness

One common challenge is the lack of public awareness about cyber threats. Many individuals still underestimate the dangers that lurk online. It’s akin to leaving your doors unlocked because you don’t realize there are thieves nearby. Raising awareness about the risks is essential to fostering a vigilant digital community.

1. Legal Hurdles in Addressing Emerging Cybercrimes

Another shared challenge is the legal hurdles in addressing emerging cybercrimes. The law is like a road map, guiding us in our pursuit of justice. But when cybercriminals exploit legal gray areas or operate across borders, it’s as if they’ve found uncharted territory. Navigating these complexities requires collaboration and innovative legal solutions.

1. Shortage of Skilled Cybersecurity Professionals

Imagine a fortress guarded by a handful of sentinels against an army of invaders. This is analogous to the shortage of skilled cybersecurity professionals. The demand for experts who can defend against cyber threats far exceeds the supply. Closing this skill gap is crucial to strengthening our digital defenses.

These challenges are like threads in a tapestry, intricately woven into the fabric of the fight against cybercrime. They remind us that we’re all in this together, that cybercriminals don’t discriminate based on nationality, and that our response must be collective and united. It’s a call to action for nations to collaborate, share knowledge, and build a resilient defense against the ever-evolving cyber threat landscape. 

VI. UNIVERISAL CONSEQUENCES OF INACTION:

In the ongoing battle against cybercrime, the cost of inaction is a price that no nation can afford to pay. The consequences of allowing cybercriminals to operate unchecked are profound and universal, affecting individuals, businesses, and societies worldwide.  Imagine a scenario where we turn a blind eye to cyber threats, treating them as mere nuisances. This inaction is akin to leaving the gates of a city wide open while invaders lay siege. The consequences are severe and far-reaching.

1. Economic Impact

One of the most immediate and palpable consequences is the economic toll. Cybercrimes can result in massive financial losses, not only for individuals but also for businesses and governments. It’s like a drain on the collective wealth of nations, diverting resources away from productive endeavors. Imagine businesses struggling to recover from cyberattacks, losing profits, and facing costly lawsuits. Governments, too, must divert funds to respond to cyber threats, funds that could have been invested in education, healthcare, or infrastructure.

1. Societal Impact

Beyond economics, the societal impact is profound. Picture a society where trust in digital systems is eroded. People fear sharing personal information online, businesses hesitate to adopt digital innovations, and governments struggle to provide essential services securely.  This erosion of trust affects the very fabric of our interconnected world. It’s like a crack in the foundation of a building, weakening the structure and making it vulnerable to collapse. A society without trust in its digital infrastructure is a society in crisis.

1. Ethical Impact

Cybercrime also raises ethical questions. When we allow cybercriminals to act with impunity, we send a message that unethical behavior is tolerated. It’s like turning a blind eye to wrongdoing in our communities.  This has a ripple effect, influencing the ethical standards of individuals and organizations. It can lead to a culture where unethical practices are normalized, further eroding the moral fiber of society.

1. International Relations Impact

In our globalized world, international relations are like a delicate dance of diplomacy and cooperation. When nations fail to act against cyber threats, it strains these relationships. It’s akin to a nation not coming to the aid of an ally under attack.  Inaction can lead to mistrust among nations, hindering collaboration on various fronts, including trade, security, and environmental issues. This deterioration in international relations has consequences that extend beyond the digital realm. The universal consequences of inaction in combating cybercrime are a stark reminder of the urgency of our collective response. It’s a call to action for nations to unite, invest in cybersecurity, enact effective legislation, and foster a culture of digital responsibility. Only through concerted efforts can we safeguard our economies, societies, and ethical principles, ensuring a secure and prosperous digital future for all.

VII. COLLABORATIVE SOLUTIONS AND GLOBAL HUBS:

In the ever-evolving battle against cybercrime, the need for collaborative solutions and the emergence of global hubs has become increasingly evident. It’s as if the world has recognized the imperative to unite and construct a fortified stronghold against the common enemy, cybercriminals.  Imagine a scenario where nations come together, forming a formidable alliance akin to superheroes uniting to defeat a supervillain. This is the essence of collaboration in the fight against cybercrime—a superpower that transcends borders. The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) is a U.S. government agency that is responsible for protecting the nation’s critical infrastructure from cyber threats. CISA’s website has a section on combating cybercrime, which provides information on the different types of cybercrimes, how to prevent them, and what to do if you are a victim of cybercrime[9]. Cybercriminals operate like shadowy figures traversing international boundaries, exploiting legal gray areas and jurisdictional complexities. Only through collective effort can we mount an effective defense.  Now, envision countries evolving into beacons of cyber security, drawing in experts, businesses, and innovations from across the globe. These nations transform into global hubs, reinforcing their digital defenses while offering their expertise to the world.  In this transformation, there are substantial economic benefits, much like planting seeds that grow into a bountiful harvest. Nurturing a thriving cyber security industry enables nations to reap economic rewards, with cyber security services, technology, and expertise becoming valuable exports that bolster national economies.

Moreover, these global hubs magnetize cybersecurity professionals, akin to a gathering of the world’s most brilliant minds. These experts bring knowledge, skills, and innovation that enhance a nation’s digital resilience. Governments play a pivotal role in fostering these hubs, offering incentives such as tax breaks, favorable regulatory environments, and investments in research and development. This support not only encourages the growth of the cyber security industry but also reinforces the nation’s digital defenses.  Consider real-world examples such as Silicon Valley in the United States, a prime exemplar of a global hub. It resembles a digital fortress where technology giants and startups congregate, exerting a profound influence not only on the economy but also on shaping global technology trends and cybersecurity solutions. Estonia, a small European nation, serves as another inspiring example. Estonia transformed itself into a global hub for digital services and cybersecurity through investments in technology and education. It became a pioneer in digital governance and a leader in cyber defense.  Collaborative solutions and global hubs embody our collective commitment to safeguarding the digital realm. They signify our unwavering resolve to stand united against the ever-evolving threats posed by cybercriminals, ensuring a safer and more prosperous digital future for all.

VIII. ACTIONABLE RECOMMENDATIONS:

In the ongoing battle against cybercrime, taking concrete action is of paramount importance. It’s not enough to merely recognize the challenges posed by cyber threats; we must actively address them. To effectively combat cyber threats, a holistic approach is needed. This means seamlessly integrating legal, ethical, and technological strategies. Governments should prioritize the development and continual update of robust cybercrime laws that are adaptable to evolving threats and harmonized with international standards. At the same time, organizations and individuals must adhere to ethical principles in cyberspace, fostering a culture of responsible online behavior. Continuous investments in cybersecurity technology are also essential, ensuring that our defenses stay ahead of cybercriminal tactics. Our legal response to cybercrime is the backbone of our defense. Nations should actively engage in international agreements and treaties related to cybercrime to foster global unity in addressing these threats. Efforts should be made to harmonize cybercrime laws, offering consistent definitions and penalties, and minimizing legal gaps. Legal professionals should also receive training in cybercrime law, equipping them to navigate the complexities of prosecuting cybercriminals effectively. Imagine a society where everyone is well-informed and vigilant about cyber threats, much like a community that ensures all its windows are locked and doors are bolted. To achieve this, governments, businesses, and educational institutions should prioritize cyber security education and training programs. These programs equip individuals with the knowledge and skills to protect themselves and their organizations. Additionally, awareness campaigns targeting all age groups should be launched to inform the general public about common cyber threats and best practices for online safety.

In a world where cybercriminals operate beyond borders, international cooperation is our collective strength. Countries should share information on cyber threats and attacks, fostering trust and enabling coordinated responses. Engaging in cybersecurity diplomacy is crucial for building partnerships and devising common strategies. Furthermore, joint cyber defense exercises allow nations to practice coordinated responses to large-scale cyberattacks.

IX. CONCLUSION:

In the rapidly evolving landscape of cybercrime, the imperative for global cooperation and cohesive strategies has never been clearer. Cybercriminals, operating with audacity and anonymity, recognize no borders. They exploit vulnerabilities with the speed of technology’s advance, and the consequences of inaction are universal and profound.  Throughout this journey, we’ve explored the need for an interdisciplinary approach, intertwining law, ethics, and technology to confront this growing menace. We’ve examined the evolving cybercrime landscape, dissecting its forms and consequences, and recognized the shared challenges faced by nations in combating this shadowy adversary.  The interplay between legal, ethical, and technological facets emerged as a critical axis for effective solutions, illustrated by global hubs that radiate expertise and innovation. We’ve witnessed the economic potential of nurturing cybersecurity industries and the vital role governments play in their growth.  Recommendations for action have been outlined, serving as a blueprint for governments, businesses, and individuals. It’s a call to unite legal, ethical, and technological strategies, reinforce legislative frameworks, enhance cyber threat awareness, and foster international cooperation. As we conclude, let us underscore the urgency of this collective effort. Cybercrime respects no boundaries; it respects no one. Inaction is a perilous path, rife with economic, societal, and ethical consequences. Our shared destiny in this digital age necessitates a united front against cybercriminals, utilizing international instruments as our arsenal.  The journey to combat AI-driven cybercrime is ongoing, marked by innovation, collaboration, and adaptation. It’s a journey where each nation, organization, and individual are a stakeholder in securing our digital future. In the end, the crux of the matter lies in our resolve, our collective determination to safeguard our digital infrastructures, and ensure a world where technology is harnessed for progress rather than exploited for harm.

Cite this article as:

DR. NEWAL CHAUDHARY, “Interdisciplinary Strategies for Combatting Cybercrime: A Global Imperative”, Vol.5 & Issue 5, Law Audience Journal (e-ISSN: 2581-6705), Pages 35 to 50 (24th March 2024), available at https://www.lawaudience.com/interdisciplinary-strategies-for-combatting-cybercrime-a-global-imperative/.

References & Footnotes:

[1] Barowalia, Dr. J.N., et al. Cyber Law & Cyber Crimes. 1st ed. New Delhi: LexisNexis, 2022.

[2] https://cybertalents.com/blog/what-is-cyber-crime-types-examples-and-prevention

[3] Chaudhary, Bivek. “What does it take to control cybercrime in Nepal?” Onlinekhabar, 15 Mar. 2023, https://english.onlinekhabar.com/cybercrime-in-nepal-cyber-crime-laws.html. 

[4] Supra note 2.

[5] Chaudhary, Bivek. “Emerging trends and challenges: The future of cybersecurity in Nepal.” Onlinekhabar, 20 Jan. 2023, https://english.onlinekhabar.com/future-of-cybersecurity-nepal.html.

[6] Britannica. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed., vol. 16, Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1986.

[7] “Cybercrime.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2023,  www.britannica.com/topic/cybercrime.

[8] Chaudhary, Bivek. The Art of Cyber Law & Cyber Crimes. Onlinekhabar, 18 May. 2022, https://english.onlinekhabar.com/the-art-of-cyber-law-cyber-crimes.html.

[9] U.S. Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency. “Combating Cybercrime.” Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security, 24 Mar. 2023, https://www.cisa.gov/combatting-cyber-crime.