Click here to download the full paper (PDF)

Authored By: Mr. Amol Yadav (B.A.LL.B (Hons)), The Faculty of Law, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi,

Click here for Copyright Policy.

Click here for Disclaimer.

ABSTRACT:

“The development of forensic science in India has been a gradual and vital process due to the rising number of crimes and the demand for accurate scientific evidence in courts. This project presents an overview of the history, status, and future of forensic science in India. Beginning with its history, the first forensic laboratory in India was established in Calcutta during the early 1900s. Currently, India possesses numerous forensic laboratories, each facing its own set of challenges. The project covers forensic medicine, biology, chemistry, and digital forensics, delving into the latest advancements and techniques used in each field. The project emphasizes the role of forensic science in India’s criminal justice system, explaining its use in investigations, court proceedings, and convictions. The difficulties faced by forensic experts, such as evidence collection, admissibility, and reliability in courts, are highlighted as well. Lastly, the project discusses the future of forensic science in India. It stresses the necessity for enhanced forensic facilities and training programs for experts. The potential for emerging technologies to revolutionize forensic science is also examined, emphasizing the importance of collaboration between law enforcement agencies and forensic experts in effectively using forensic evidence to solve crimes. Overall, this project offers a comprehensive overview of the development of forensic science in India, shedding light on its status, challenges, and future potential”. 

Keywords: Contemporary Forensics, Capacity Building, Scientific Investigations, Technological Developments, Forensic Science, Toxicology.

“Physical evidence cannot be intimidated. It does not forget. It sits there and waits to be detected, preserved, evaluated, and explained.”

1. INTRODUCTION:

1.1. DEFINING FORENSIC SCIENCE:

Forensic Science is defined as ‘The application of science to those criminal and civil laws that are enforced in a criminal justice system by the police agencies’. The field of forensic science deals with the application of scientific knowledge and technique to legal issues. Numerous fields, including biology, forensic chemistry, computer science, engineering, medicine, physics, and DNA profiling are used in the examination of evidence. For instance, biology aids in establishing the background of an anonymous suspect, physics, etc.  are utilised to identify the blueprint of a blood scatter, and chemistry aids in determining the chemical makeup of various substances. As a result, the role of forensic science in criminal justice and the legal system is frequently undervalued and of the utmost importance. Midway through the 19th century, natural science started to advance rapidly. As scientific experiments steadily shed new light on the mysteries of the world, the mystic explanations previously presented to explain the order of things started to lose popularity. Not just in criminal investigations but also in the other parts of the legal system, the shift in perspective from the mystic to the scientific was rapidly obvious. A single case had now taken on two sides. From a scientific perspective, the aspect was mentioned and the aspect was proven. Forensic science has come of age. Even though the use of forensic evidence in the legal system has increased, the Indian judiciary still uses it in a limited way.[1]

The majority of the court’s judgements so far have been based on non-forensic, non-scientific evidence. Only 60–65 cases, according to a recent assessment by the Supreme Court of India and the High Court of Delhi, are resolved with the use of forensic evidence. Only 5% of murder cases and 3% of rape cases have employed DNA evidence. These numbers are sufficient to demonstrate the dearth of scientific data in a criminal inquiry in the Indian context. The integration of forensic science into the process of criminal investigation and judicial process has been a global endeavour. Because of a paucity of evidence, the conviction rate has been steadily declining recently. In this setting, forensic evidence with a clinching quality has the potential to partially change the course of events.

1.2. GENERAL PRELUDE:

Forensic science applies natural, physical, and social sciences to legal matters, with a focus on investigating and collecting evidence at crime scenes. Proper documentation, preservation, and evaluation of evidence are essential for scientific event reconstruction. Maintaining evidence integrity through a chain of custody is crucial. Forensic science encompasses various disciplines and plays a fundamental role in legal contexts, using scientific methods to analyze and interpret evidence like bloodstains, human remains, and digital files. Scene investigations involve documenting, preserving, and examining crime scenes and evidence. Collaborating with scientists ensures accurate and reliable results, avoiding pitfalls of experiential-based approaches like confirmation bias. Incorporating rigorous scientific methodology in scene investigations yields unbiased results, promoting justice. Scientists at the scene minimize bias and allow for objective interpretations.[2] Scene reconstruction uses scientific and analytical methods to understand past events. It involves piecing together investigative elements, using identification, individualization, and exclusion techniques. Unique qualities give objects individual identities, and comparisons with known standards determine shared origins. Exclusion is crucial, ruling out potential suspects or scenarios. Forensic science’s application in scene investigations and reconstruction is vital for accurate and objective interpretation of evidence in legal contexts. By emphasizing scientific principles, providing proper training, and fostering collaboration between scientific experts and investigators, the effectiveness of scene investigations can be enhanced, contributing to the pursuit of justice.[3]

1.3. BACKGROUND:

The field of forensic science in India traces its roots back to the establishment of the Central Fingerprint Bureau in Kolkata in 1897, which became operational in 1904. Since then, forensic science has played a vital role in criminal investigations in the country, prompting efforts to strengthen its capacity over the years. India boasts several State and Central Forensic Science Laboratories, along with Fingerprint Bureaux set up by various states. Toxicological and crime laboratories, under the control of the police and health departments, have also been established. Currently, there are 29 fingerprint bureaux, 37 state forensic science laboratories, and 7 central forensic science laboratories in India. Additionally, Regional Forensic Science Laboratories and District Mobile Forensic Units exist in some states.[4] The Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, has established an advanced Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics (CDFD) in Hyderabad. DNA profiling, which was pioneered by Professor Alec Jeffreys in London in 1985, is now widely used by police, forensic institutions, and wildlife departments to identify individuals and animals from biological samples in criminal cases. While the private sector has offered forensic sample analysis and job opportunities in the field for over 15 years, the government-managed Fingerprint Bureau, Forensic Science Laboratories, and Chemical Examiners Laboratories employ over 4500 forensic specialists in India.[5] Despite this, the country’s ratio of forensic scientists to population is relatively low at 0.33 scientists per 0.1 million people compared to other nations. India faces challenges in its forensic science industry, including a backlog of cases leading to delays in the legal system and identification efforts. Factors contributing to this backlog include the high proportion of cases referred to the laboratories and time-consuming tests like DNA and toxicology analysis. To address these challenges and improve efficiency, India needs significant development in its forensic science industry. This includes the establishment of disaster victim identification teams, additional judges and investigators, and better scientific tools to handle cybercrime cases. Educational resources and resources for DNA matching also need improvement. While India has made significant strides in the field of forensic science, there is a pressing need to address existing challenges and invest in its development to enhance its capacity to solve crimes effectively and efficiently.[6]

2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT:

2.1. DEVELOPMENT OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN INDIA:

Forensic science in the ancient world lacked standardized procedures, making it easier for criminals to evade punishment. In ancient times, criminal investigations relied heavily on forcible confessions and witness testimonies. Even before the formal notion of forensic science emerged, techniques such as those described in the “Eureka” fable attributed to Archimedes were used to solve mysteries. In ancient India, medical advice was often sought to interpret legal obligations. For instance, doctors were consulted to determine the age of girls before marriage and the duration of pregnancies. This historical context showcases the early intersections of medicine and law. The use of fingerprints as a means of identification and validation can be traced back to the 7th century, with an Arabic trader employing them for this purpose. Sir William Herschel, in the 19th century, pioneered the use of fingerprints in official documents and criminal investigations, contributing significantly to the development of forensic science.[7] The fictional character Sherlock Holmes, created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, popularized forensic techniques like fingerprinting, ballistics, and handwriting analysis before they were widely used in law enforcement. Archimedes is considered the founding father of forensic science, utilizing density and bounce to determine the composition of objects. Indian contributions to forensic science are notable, with Maharshi Charaka’s “Charak Samhita” discussing disease diagnosis and treatment, as well as toxicology. Sushruta is regarded as the father of forensic medicine and plastic surgery, with his work, the Sushruta Samhita, introducing surgical practices in ancient Ayurvedic medicine. Forensic science’s early usage can be traced back to China in the 7th century, where fingerprints and clay sculptures were utilized for identification purposes. India made significant advancements in the 19th century, establishing chemical examination laboratories, anthropometry bureaus, and government examiners of questioned documents. Calcutta played a vital role in the development of forensic science with the establishment of various laboratories and training schools.[8] Throughout history, India demonstrated a commitment to advancing forensic science, with the formation of the Indian Academy of Forensic Sciences (IAFS) in 1960 and the opening of the first Forensic DNA Typing laboratory in Calcutta in 1998. Overall, the rich history of forensic science involves various ancient and historical figures and civilizations, shaping the field into what it is today, with advancements in technology and investigative techniques continuously improving the practice of forensic science.

2.2. PRESENT DAY:

Crime has been defined differently by jurists. Sir William Blackstone defined it as an act violating public law, while Sir James Stephen saw it as illegal and offensive to societal morals. Forensic scientists use DNA analysis to identify individuals by examining unique DNA profiles created from specific genetic regions. DNA testing has become a powerful tool in forensic investigations, analyzing DNA found in physical evidence like blood, hair, or semen to establish links to individuals. DNA profiling is widely used as evidence in criminal cases, aiding in the identification and prosecution of offenders. Additionally, it is employed in civil disputes, particularly in situations when determining paternity of identity is at stake. In the modern world, forensic science is a cutting-edge scientific method utilised in criminal and civil investigations. It can provide valuable insights and is a crucial component of the criminal justice system. In order to aid courts, the police system, private agents, and individuals throughout an inquiry or cross-examination procedure, both the State and Central Governments have built laboratories for the same purpose. Each piece of forensic evidence that the expert gathers at the crime scene during the inquiry is so distinctive in its own manner that it is necessary to test each piece and conduct individual analysis on each one in order to draw a conclusion. Multiple experts with expertise in the same field may be called upon in complex situations to assess the evidence that has been gathered and to provide analysis. More than 30 million cases are currently pending in India’s courts or through alternative methods like the International Forensic Sciences (IFS) and Central Forensic Science Laboratory (CBI).[9]

3. APPLICATION OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN LAW:

Professionals working alone or in groups frequently do forensic analysis. In the investigation and prosecution of civil and criminal proceedings, forensic evidence analysis is used. It frequently can help in establishing a suspect’s guilt or innocence. It is also possible to link crimes that are thought to be connected using forensic evidence. For instance, DNA evidence may exonerate an accused person or link a single perpetrator to numerous crimes or crime scenes. Linking crimes helps law enforcement organisations discover and prosecute criminals by reducing the number of potential suspects and detecting patterns of crime. One of the crucial elements of criminal justice is forensic science. It primarily focuses on the scientific evaluation of tangible evidence acquired from the crime scene. Through the rhetorical examination of tangible evidence, the identification (what) of the crime is discovered. The circumstances reveal a great deal about the moment (when) of the occurrence. The where/crime site of the crime is established by the rhetorical proof. The offender’s technique (how) is determined by the rhetorical analysis. It concludes by outlining the crime’s motivation.[10] The rhetorical investigators identify the offender and hence the victim. In a criminal investigation, the job of a forensic scientist is essential since it entails a thorough study of the evidence while guaranteeing its integrity. The investigation of a criminal activity involves the use of a wide range of forensic experts and procedures. Forensic pathologists, for example, carry out autopsies to determine the cause of death. An autopsy uses biological fluids and tissues to help determine the cause and manner of death. To identify suspects, forensic specialists examine physical evidence (fingerprints, DNA, hair, etc.) collected from the crime scene. Additionally, to track down criminals who have evaded capture for a long time, forensic experts use picture manipulation technologies.[11]

4. THE SCOPE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE:

• Forensic Biology/DNA:

DNA profiling is the other often employed forensic method in criminal investigations in addition to fingerprint analysis. Given that each person’s DNA is as distinctive as their fingerprints, forensic experts can use DNA to authenticate an unidentified person’s identity or to eliminate suspects from a list of suspects. Blood, saliva, semen, skin, urine, and hair are the biological samples that are most frequently used for DNA profiling. DNA fingerprints aren’t typically used in a court of law as the only piece of evidence, though.

• Forensic Odontology:

When a body has been left in an unrecognisable condition, forensic odontology aids in the identification of the victims. This is accomplished by looking at their teeth, jaw alignment, and general mouth structure. By studying the growth and architecture of the teeth, as well as any restorative dental adjustments like fillings, forensic dentists or odontologists help in the comparative identification of a person. For bite mark analysis in criminal investigations, it is frequently used. 

• Forensic Toxicology:

Analysing biological samples to look for the presence of medicines and toxins is the focus of forensic toxicology. This area of forensic research is crucial in cases involving poisoning, sexual assault, and other tragedies. The toxicology reports provide important details regarding the types of substances found in a person in relation to an incident. It also establishes whether the number of drugs exceeds the allowable limit or is normal according to a therapeutic dosage. This area of forensic science is constantly changing and need for an up-to-date methodology because more advanced drug variations are created every day.

• Forensic Anthropology:

In this, skeletons or compromised human remains are examined to ascertain their age, height, gender, and ancestry. By locating and assessing any injuries, it also aids in determining the duration of life. Particularly in situations where the remains are beyond recognition, these tests provide investigators with useful clues for identifying victims.

• Forensic Pathology and Medicolegal Death Investigation:

A subspecialty of pathology called forensic pathology examines a corpse to assist identify the cause of death. Thus, forensic medicine entails the gathering and examination of medical samples in order to ascertain information that can be used as evidence in court. For instance, recognising patterns in wounds can assist identify the weapon that caused them. Furthermore, forensic pathologists can look at exit and entry wounds in cases of shooting deaths or deaths involving other projectiles. Therefore, a forensic pathologist can make important deductions about the cause of death—whether it was accidental, criminal, or natural.

• Impression and Pattern Evidence:

Evidence that is produced when two things come into sufficient force to leave an “impression” is known as impression evidence. A fingerprint or other two-dimensional or three-dimensional imprint, such as the marks left by a gunshot, may be involved in this. Analysing pattern evidence entails locating and analysing further data included within an impression. When combined, impression and pattern evidence can assist make crucial connections between a suspect or tool and a crime scene.

• Trace Evidence:

There are several types of trace evidence, including fibres, soil, hair, gunshot residue, wood, and pollen. Its potential to be easily transferrable during a crime across objects, persons, or the environment gives rise to its moniker. In many cases, trace evidence is crucial in forging a strong connection between a suspect and the victim. For instance, a soil sample taken from the victim’s shoes can provide important hints about the scene of the crime and help identify the offender.

• Cyber Forensics:

In cyber forensics, evidence obtained on computers and other digital storage devices, such as hard drives and pen drives, is analysed. Its main goal is to locate, save, recover, analyse, and provide information and viewpoints regarding digital data. Although it is frequently utilised in civil trials, it is mostly used for cybercrime investigations. Since the middle of the 1980s, cyber forensics has been employed in criminal cases. Some prominent examples include the conviction of Dennis Rader, Dr. Conrad Murray, Michael Jackson’s personal physician, and Joseph E. Duncan III.

• Ballistics:

The velocity, behaviour, dynamics, angular movement, and impacts of projectiles like bullets, rockets, missiles, explosives, etc. are the subject of the specialised forensic science known as ballistics. Ballistics are mostly used in forensics for criminal investigations. When a bullet is examined, for instance, it can be determined what kind of gun was used to fire it and whether it has any connections to earlier crimes. In fact, a sizable database with information on ballistics is available to law enforcement organisations all around the world.

5. IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE:

Forensic science plays a vital role in the criminal justice system by providing scientific analysis and interpretation of physical evidence. It helps identify suspects, link them to crime scenes, and establish guilt or innocence. Forensic science assists in reconstructing crime scenes, shedding light on the sequence of events and identifying potential witnesses. It is crucial in determining the cause and manner of death in suspicious cases. Additionally, forensic science is valuable in drug-related cases and ensures the integrity of the criminal justice system through objective analysis. By employing techniques such as DNA analysis, fingerprinting, ballistics, and trace evidence examination, forensic science contributes to the resolution of crimes and the pursuit of justice. This helps to reduce the likelihood of wrongful convictions and can provide valuable information for appeals and post-conviction proceedings.[12] Forensic science is a critical tool in the criminal justice system that provides valuable information and evidence in the investigation and prosecution of crimes. Its importance cannot be overstated, and it plays a vital role in ensuring that justice is served fairly and impartially.

6. LAWS GOVERNING FORENSIC SCIENCE IN INDIA:

Forensic science in India is governed by a number of laws and regulations at the national and state levels. The following are some of the key laws that relate to forensic science in India:

• The Indian Evidence Act, 1872:

This law governs the admissibility of evidence in courts of law. It lays down the rules for the collection, preservation, and presentation of evidence, including forensic evidence.

• The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973:

This law governs the conduct of criminal proceedings in India. It outlines the procedures for the investigation, arrest, and trial of criminal suspects. Forensic evidence plays an important role in criminal proceedings, and the Code of Criminal Procedure lays down procedures for the collection and preservation of such evidence.[13]

• The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985:

This law regulates the production, sale, and consumption of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances in India. It includes provisions for the testing and analysis of such substances by forensic laboratories.

• The DNA Profiling Bill, 2019:

This is a proposed law that seeks to regulate the use of DNA profiling in criminal investigations. The bill outlines procedures for the collection, analysis, and storage of DNA samples, as well as the use of DNA profiles in criminal investigations.

• The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012:

This law is aimed at protecting children from sexual abuse and exploitation. It includes provisions for the collection and analysis of forensic evidence in cases of sexual offences against children.

• The Indian Penal Code, 1860:

This law defines criminal offences in India and lays down the penalties for such offences. Forensic evidence is often used to establish the guilt or innocence of accused persons in criminal cases.

In addition to these laws, there are also a number of guidelines and standards that govern the practice of forensic science in India. The Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, has issued guidelines for the accreditation and functioning of forensic science laboratories in the country. The National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories (NABL) also provides accreditation to forensic laboratories in India.

7. ROLE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS AND COURT PROCEEDINGS:

The criminal justice system functions to maintain societal peace by ensuring fairness and justice for all individuals. It encompasses various components such as courts, jails, police, and punishment. These divisions work together to deliver justice to victims and hold offenders accountable, thus upholding social order.[14] The effectiveness of a society’s criminal justice system significantly impacts its ability to maintain peace. Courts and judges are especially vital, responsible for impartially administering justice. Handling unique cases and establishing charges adds complexity, aided by institutions and agencies collaborating with the courts. Solid evidence is essential for justice to prevail.[15] Modern technology plays a pivotal role, particularly in forensics, aiding police and courts in reconstructing crime scenes and establishing connections among culprits. Technological evidence significantly contributes to accurate decision-making in cases. In State of NCT Delhi vs. Sujeet Kumar[16], Delhi police investigated a severe rape and unnatural sexual act with a four-year-old female child residing in a slum abode, and DNA profiling was utilized to link the culprit to the heinous crime of sexual abuse. After reviewing the extensive study of the child’s testimony and the many methodologies involved, the court agreed to the investigation results based on DNA reports and other evidence and found the accused guilty and overturned the Trial Court’s order acquitting the accused.

7.1. SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION:

Gathering witnesses poses challenges due to criminals using coercion to intimidate them, creating fear and reluctance to provide evidence to investigators. Witnesses’ lives are often threatened, leading to a detachment from the legal system.[17] This approach can result in crimes being committed in a manner that avoids leaving direct evidence. Consequently, forensic investigations become pivotal in such situations. Various techniques like medical examinations, fingerprinting, and foot printing are employed, requiring qualified individuals for effective application. The authenticity of forensic evidence depends on the circumstances and argument effectiveness.[18] Although evidence authenticity is not explicitly stated in evidence laws, courts generally prioritize it, favouring expert evidence. If an expert is unable to draw conclusions due to limitations, the court investigates thoroughly. Discord between experts weakens evidence persuasiveness, discouraging its recommendation. Courts scrutinize evidence alignment with the Evidence Act of 1872 and the Indian Constitution, with debates over elements like finger printing’s constitutionality. Section 27 of the Indian Evidence Act of 1872 remains affirmed by courts.[19] In the case of State of Maharashtra vs. Natwarlal Damodardas Soni[20], the court addressed the issue of illegally obtained evidence. The ruling stated that such evidence, even if acquired unlawfully, can still be admitted in court and hold legal validity. The court focuses on the evidence’s admissibility in the case at hand and has supported this stance previously. Modern technology’s evidence, including overlaid pictures and oral testimony, is well-received by the court[21]. Various forms of evidence, even using contemporary technology, are considered valid by the courts.[22]

7.2. ROLE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION:

In today’s technology-driven era, forensic science plays a crucial role in the criminal justice system. It identifies tangible and empirical evidence in criminal investigations, pinpointing offenders and determining the nature of the crime accurately. This technology also aids in crime scene identification and understanding the crime process. Overall, forensic science has transformed evidence reliability by establishing clear connections between criminals and their actions. The investigative process involves gathering evidence from crime scenes or individuals, followed by presenting findings in court. While each case is unique, this presents challenges for courts. Forensic technology heavily relies on identifying personal items, fingerprints, blood, weapons, and more, often linking them to perpetrators. Its precision is vital for determining both guilt and innocence. Therefore, forensic science is essential for exonerating individuals and identifying offenders. Thanks to its accuracy, investigations have become simpler, playing a vital role in the criminal justice system.[23]

7.3. LANDMARK JUDGEMENTS:

In the criminal justice system, forensic science is essential for gathering evidence on crucial issues, establishing an accused person’s innocence, and identifying suspects. The investigating officer’s primary responsibility is to gather crucial evidence at the crime scene. This officer is exempt from liability for any damage to the evidence that may be sustained during collection or packaging. Evidence must be gathered carefully, and attempts to damage it must be thwarted at all costs. In other instances, the accused has been given a term of up to 10 years for a particular sort of murder based on DNA evidence, and occasionally the punishment has also been extended to the death penalty.[24] Since just the victim’s palm was left in the murder case of Nitish Katara, identifying the victim becomes a significant challenge. The victim and his parents’ DNA samples were utilised in this case to identify the victim, and the offender was then given sentence by the Hon’ble High Court of Delhi.[25] The State, the petitioner contested the DNA proof in the case of Sushil Mandal vs. State[26]. There has been a friendship between the boy and the girl. Following this, a boy whose body had been missing for 20 days was found in a lake. The petitioner doesn’t specify which of the boy’s possessions are his. The boy’s father charges the girl’s father and demands that the central government authorities conduct an investigation. The body’s DNA report is linked with the boy’s parents. The test findings were rejected by the petitioner, therefore a new test was conducted with the same outcome. By taking into account the correctness of the DNA report, the honourable court adjourned the case.[27] In Anmolsingh Swarnsingh Jabbal vs. The State of Maharashtra[28], the case saw a boy given a life sentence with harsh penalty for killing his female co-worker out of unrequited love. In another instance, where brutality overstepped its bounds and humanity was disregarded, a four-year-old girl who lives in a Delhi slum was raped. The Delhi police investigation team is able to identify the offender for their sexual conduct with the use of precise DNA report results. The court approved the results based on the DNA report and other findings after taking into account several findings and reports, and as a result, sentenced the accused in accordance with the law. In a different case involving the same facts, the court determines that forensic science technology is essential to supporting the conviction of the accused for the murder, kidnapping, and rape of a young girl.[29] The first criminal case in India solved with the aid of forensics involved Shusil Sharma, who murdered his wife, Naina Sahni, due to suspicions of infidelity. Sharma fired three bullets into her body at home and later attempted to burn her remains in a restaurant tandoor with the help of the manager, Keshav Kumar. Police collected evidence, including Sharma’s revolver and blood-stained clothes, which were sent to the Lodhi Road forensic laboratory. DNA testing on blood samples from Sahni’s parents confirmed her identity, leading to Sharma’s conviction based on forensic evidence. To improve the quality of forensic analysis, Science Laboratories have been established under the guidance of a Technical Committee, with a focus on accreditation and competence (Tandoor Murder Case[30]). The use of modern technology, particularly forensic science, has gained significant importance in our nation’s investigations and justice system. This contemporary technology offers substantial advantages in delivering results, becoming a crucial element in the justice system, as confirmed by a government-formed research group on criminal justice reforms. Adjustments are continually made to optimize the use of forensic investigations, despite some existing flaws in the system. Due to their reliable outcomes, the court system heavily relies on these scientific investigations. Forensic science has enhanced the efficiency of the justice system, making it imperative to effectively utilize such investigations and similar technologies in the future for better outcomes and improved operation of the criminal justice system. Ensuring effective employment of these technologies is essential to achieve greater results.[31]

8. MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN FORENSIC SCIENCE IN INDIA:

Forensic science in India has made significant advancements over the years, playing a crucial role in criminal investigations and the administration of justice.

Here are some key developments in the field of forensic science in India:

• Formation of Central Forensic Science Laboratory (CFSL): The CFSL was established in Kolkata in 1957, marking the beginning of organized forensic science services in India. Subsequently, regional CFSLs were set up in various cities across the country.
• Setting up of Forensic Science Laboratories (FSLs): State governments in India have established FSLs in different states to provide forensic services at the regional level. These laboratories are equipped with advanced forensic techniques and technologies.
• Expansion of Forensic Disciplines: The range of forensic disciplines has expanded in India to cover various aspects of criminal investigations. These include forensic pathology, forensic toxicology, forensic biology, forensic chemistry, forensic ballistics, forensic document examination, forensic psychology, and digital forensics.
• Adoption of International Standards: India has strived to align its forensic science practices with international standards. The adoption of standardized protocols and methods has enhanced the quality and reliability of forensic evidence in court proceedings.
• Improvement in DNA Profiling: The use of DNA profiling has significantly advanced forensic investigations in India. The establishment of DNA profiling units and databases has played a crucial role in solving complex cases, identifying suspects, and exonerating the innocent.[32]
• Cyber Forensics: With the rise in cybercrime, India has focused on developing expertise in cyber forensics. Specialized units have been established to investigate digital crimes, recover digital evidence, and analyze digital devices for criminal investigations.
• Training and Research: Various institutions and universities in India offer specialized courses and training programs in forensic science. These initiatives help develop skilled forensic professionals and promote research and innovation in the field.
• Collaboration and International Cooperation: India has collaborated with international organizations and forensic agencies to enhance its forensic capabilities. Training programs, exchange of expertise, and sharing of best practices have been facilitated through such any Sug collaborations.

These developments have contributed to the growth and recognition of forensic science in India. However, challenges such as increasing workloads, infrastructure limitations, and the need for continuous training and research remain, and efforts are being made to address these issues and further advance the field of forensic science in the country.

9. DIGITAL FORENSICS AND CYBERCRIME INVESTIGATIONS IN INDIA:

The recovery and examination of data from digital devices is the focus of the forensic science subfield known as “digital forensics.” It has its roots in the personal computing revolutions (1970–1980) and encompasses examination of every device capable of storing digital data. With the formation of national policy, the discipline only really emerged in the twenty-first century. It can be used to prove or disprove a theory in civil or criminal courts. Computer, mobile device, network, forensic data analysis, and database forensics are some of the other divisions made within the field of digital forensics. Because cybercrime has become a more prevalent kind of crime, there is a recent increase in need for cyber forensics specialists. Each incident is looked into by a cyber-forensic specialist utilising cutting-edge techniques. Their in-depth investigation focuses on creating a strong chain of evidence. Thanks to the legally admissible evidence they produce, they can resolve legal issues and convict cybercriminals. Cyber forensics experts are detectives who respond to serious data breaches and crimes.[33] Cyber forensics are necessary for organisations to determine what occurred, how it occurred, how serious it is, and who is responsible.

9.1 DEVELOPMENTS SURROUNDING DIGITAL FORENSICS AND CYBERCRIME INVESTIGATIONS IN INDIA:

Digital forensics and cybercrime investigations in India have witnessed significant developments in recent years, reflecting the growing challenges posed by cybercriminals and the increasing reliance on digital technologies. Here are some key developments in digital forensics and cybercrime investigations in India:

• Formation of Cybercrime Units: Law enforcement agencies in India have established dedicated cybercrime units at the national, state, and city levels. These units focus on investigating and combating cybercrimes, including financial fraud, hacking, identity theft, online harassment, and cyber terrorism.[34]
• Cyber Forensic Laboratories: Specialized cyber forensic laboratories have been set up in various cities across India. These laboratories are equipped with state-of-theart technology and tools to analyze digital evidence, recover deleted data, and conduct forensic investigations.
• Cybercrime Prevention and Awareness Initiatives: The Indian government, along with private organizations and NGOs, has undertaken various initiatives to raise awareness about cybercrimes and promote safe online practices. These include organizing workshops, seminars, and awareness campaigns targeting different sections of society, including students, businesses, and the general public.[35]
• Cyber Forensics Training and Certification: Recognizing the need for skilled professionals in digital forensics, several institutions in India now offer specialized courses and certification programs in cyber forensics. These programs aim to develop a competent workforce capable of conducting digital investigations and handling digital evidence.[36]
• Legal Framework: India has enacted and updated several laws to address cybercrimes effectively. The Information Technology Act, 2000, and its subsequent amendments provide legal provisions for various cyber offenses and the admissibility of digital evidence in court.
• International Cybersecurity Conventions: India is a signatory to various international cybersecurity conventions and has actively participated in initiatives such as the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime. These conventions promote cooperation among countries in investigating and prosecuting cybercrimes.

These developments highlight the concerted efforts by the Indian government, law enforcement agencies, and other stakeholders to enhance digital forensics capabilities and combat cybercrimes effectively. However, given the rapidly evolving nature of cyber threats, continuous investment in research, technology, and capacity building remains essential to stay ahead of cybercriminals and protect individuals, organizations, and the nation’s digital infrastructure.

10. CHALLENGES IN FORENSIC SCIENCE IN INDIA:

While forensic science in India has made significant progress, several challenges persist that impact its effectiveness and efficiency. These challenges include:

• Backlog of Cases: Forensic laboratories in India face a substantial backlog of cases, leading to delays in the analysis of evidence and the delivery of justice. Insufficient resources, including equipment, staff, and funding, contribute to the backlog and hinder the timely resolution of cases.
• Quality Assurance: Ensuring consistent quality standards across forensic laboratories in India remains a challenge. The lack of uniformity in procedures, protocols, and training can affect the reliability and credibility of forensic evidence presented in court.
• DNA Profiling Capacity: While DNA profiling has gained prominence in India, there is still a need to strengthen the capacity and infrastructure for DNA analysis. Increased investment and resources are required to expand the DNA database, enhance the capabilities of DNA profiling units, and reduce the turnaround time for DNA analysis.[37]
• Legal Framework: The legal framework governing forensic science in India needs further development and modernization. Clear guidelines and protocols for evidence collection, analysis, and interpretation, along with effective legislation related to forensic science, are necessary to ensure the admissibility and credibility of forensic evidence in court.
• Public Awareness and Understanding: Raising public awareness about the role and limitations of forensic science is essential. Improved understanding among the general public, legal professionals, and the judiciary can lead to better utilization and interpretation of forensic evidence.

Addressing these challenges requires sustained efforts and investments in the forensic science sector. Increased funding, modernization of infrastructure, standardization of procedures, continuous training and research, and closer collaboration between different stakeholders are crucial for enhancing the effectiveness and reliability of forensic science in India.

10.1. LACK OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND FUNDING FOR FORENSIC LABS:

One of the significant challenges in forensic science in India is the lack of adequate infrastructure and funding for forensic laboratories. This issue hampers the efficiency and capacity of forensic labs to handle caseloads and deliver timely results.[38] Here are some specific points related to the lack of infrastructure and funding:

• Insufficient Laboratory Space: Many forensic laboratories in India operate in cramped spaces, leading to limitations in equipment setup, sample storage, and workflow management. Inadequate space also hinders the implementation of proper protocols for evidence handling and prevents the expansion of laboratory facilities.
• Outdated Equipment and Technology: The lack of funding often results in outdated equipment and technology in forensic laboratories. This can hinder the analysis and interpretation of evidence, making it challenging to keep up with advancements in forensic science. Upgrading and maintaining modern equipment requires substantial investment, which may be lacking in many labs.[39]
• Shortage of Skilled Staff: Forensic laboratories require a well-trained and skilled workforce to conduct accurate analyses and interpretations. However, the shortage of qualified forensic scientists, technicians, and support staff is a significant challenge. Insufficient funding limits the recruitment, training, and retention of skilled professionals in forensic science.
• Limited Specialized Facilities: Certain specialized forensic disciplines require specific facilities and equipment, such as DNA analysis units, ballistics labs, and cyber forensic units. The limited availability of these specialized facilities in India hampers the comprehensive investigation of complex cases and delays the delivery of justice.
• Research and Development: Funding constraints hinder research and development activities in forensic science. Lack of investment in research limits the discovery and implementation of innovative techniques and methodologies that could improve forensic investigations and analysis.
• Interagency Collaboration: Collaboration and coordination between different agencies involved in forensic science, such as law enforcement, judiciary, and forensic laboratories, are crucial. However, the lack of infrastructure and funding can impede effective collaboration, hindering the seamless flow of information and evidence in criminal investigations.

Addressing the lack of infrastructure and funding for forensic labs requires a multifaceted approach. Increased government investment, public-private partnerships, and international collaborations can help secure the necessary funding for infrastructure development, equipment upgrades, and skilled workforce training. Additionally, advocacy for the importance of forensic science and its role in the criminal justice system can generate awareness and support for increased funding in this critical field.[40]

10.2. TRAINING AND EDUCATION OF FORENSIC PROFESSIONALS:

Training and education of forensic professionals play a vital role in ensuring the competence, skills, and expertise required to effectively contribute to the field of forensic science. In India, efforts are being made to enhance training and education opportunities for forensic professionals. Here are some key aspects related to the training and education of forensic professionals in India:

• Specialized Courses and Certification Programs: To meet the specific needs of forensic science, specialized courses and certification programs are available in areas such as DNA profiling, forensic toxicology, forensic anthropology, forensic odontology, crime scene investigation, and digital forensics. These programs aim to develop specialized skills and expertise in specific forensic disciplines.[41]
• Internships and Hands-on Training: Many educational institutions and forensic laboratories provide opportunities for students to gain practical experience through internships and hands-on training. These practical training programs expose students to real-life scenarios, laboratory techniques, evidence handling, and analysis under the guidance of experienced forensic professionals.
• Collaboration with International Institutions: Collaboration with international forensic institutions and organizations enables knowledge exchange, training programs, and capacity building. Indian forensic professionals participate in international conferences, workshops, and training sessions to learn from global best practices and stay updated with the latest advancements in the field.
• Collaboration with Law Enforcement Agencies: Collaboration between forensic science institutions and law enforcement agencies promotes knowledge sharing, practical training, and case-based learning. This collaboration enhances the understanding of forensic science among law enforcement personnel and facilitates effective utilization of forensic evidence in criminal investigations.[42]
• Quality Assurance and Accreditation: Ensuring quality standards in forensic science education and training is essential. Accreditation bodies and quality assurance mechanisms help maintain the credibility and reliability of forensic science programs and institutions in India. This includes adherence to curriculum standards, training protocols, and ethical guidelines.

Efforts are being made to strengthen the training and education of forensic professionals in India. Continuous investment in infrastructure, faculty development, curriculum updates, and research opportunities will contribute to producing competent and skilled forensic professionals who can effectively contribute to criminal investigations and the administration of justice.

10.3. ADMISSIBILITY OF FORENSIC EVIDENCE IN COURT:

The admissibility of forensic evidence in court is a critical aspect of the criminal justice system. In India, the admissibility of forensic evidence is governed by the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, and various legal precedents established by courts. Here are some key factors that determine the admissibility of forensic evidence in court:

• Relevance: Forensic evidence must be relevant to the case at hand. It should have a direct bearing on proving or disproving a fact in issue. The evidence should be connected to the crime scene, the accused, or the victim, and should assist the court in arriving at a just decision.[43]
• Expert Opinion: Forensic evidence often requires expert interpretation and opinion. Expert witnesses, who are qualified and recognized in their respective fields, are called upon to present their findings, analysis, and opinions related to the evidence. The court evaluates the credibility and expertise of the expert witness before considering their opinion.
• Chain of Custody: The chain of custody refers to the documented record of the custody, control, and handling of the evidence from the time of collection until its presentation in court. Courts require a proper chain of custody to ensure the integrity and authenticity of the evidence. It is important to establish that the evidence presented in court is the same as that collected from the crime scene.
• Expert Testimony and Cross-Examination: The expert witness presenting forensic evidence is subject to cross-examination by the opposing party. Cross-examination allows the opposing party to challenge the expert’s opinion, methodology, and credibility. The court considers the quality of the expert testimony and the strength of the cross-examination in evaluating the admissibility and weight of the forensic evidence.[44]
• Judicial Discretion: Ultimately, the admissibility of forensic evidence is subject to the discretion of the judge. The judge evaluates the relevance, credibility, and probative value of the evidence, considering factors such as scientific validity, expert opinion, and compliance with legal procedures.

It is important to note that the admissibility of forensic evidence may vary based on the specific facts and circumstances of each case. Courts consider these factors to ensure the fairness, reliability, and integrity of the evidence presented, ultimately contributing to the administration of justice.

11. FUTURE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN INDIA:

The future of forensic science in India is poised for significant advancement and innovation. Evolving technology will introduce new tools and techniques, enhancing investigation accuracy and efficiency. Forensic DNA analysis will expand, with a robust database and advanced profiling technologies revolutionizing crime scene investigations. Digital forensics will gain importance with rising cybercrime, supported by improved tools and artificial intelligence.[45] Interdisciplinary collaboration among scientists, law enforcement, and the judiciary will integrate forensic evidence effectively.[46] Addressing challenges like case backlogs, infrastructure, funding, and skilled professionals is essential. Investment, modernization of labs, and comprehensive training are crucial. Updating the legal framework for the admissibility of forensic evidence will ensure its proper use in the judicial system. With these efforts, the future of forensic science in India promises to play a vital role in delivering justice, solving crimes, and ensuring societal safety.[47]

Here are some key areas that are likely to shape the future of forensic science in India:

• Technological Advancements: Rapid technological advancements will continue to play a pivotal role in the future of forensic science. Emerging technologies such as advanced DNA analysis techniques, enhanced fingerprint analysis methods, and more sophisticated forensic imaging and digital analysis tools will contribute to more accurate and efficient forensic investigations.
• DNA Profiling: DNA profiling has already gained prominence in India, and its future is promising. The expansion of DNA databases, improved DNA extraction and analysis techniques, and increased automation will further enhance the capacity and accuracy of DNA profiling. DNA evidence will continue to play a crucial role in solving crimes, identifying suspects, and exonerating the innocent.
• Digital Forensics and Cybercrime Investigations: With the increasing prevalence of cybercrime, the field of digital forensics will continue to grow in importance. The future of forensic science in India will witness advancements in digital forensics tools and techniques to effectively investigate and analyze digital evidence, including cyberattacks, digital fraud, and data breaches.
• Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Collaboration between forensic science, law enforcement agencies, the judiciary, and other related disciplines will become increasingly important. Interdisciplinary collaboration will enhance the integration of forensic evidence into criminal investigations and court proceedings, leading to more effective and comprehensive outcomes.
• Research and Development: Continued investment in research and development will drive advancements in forensic science in India. Research initiatives focused on improving forensic techniques, developing new analytical methods, and addressing emerging challenges will contribute to the growth and evolution of the field.[48]
• Training and Education: The future of forensic science in India will see an increased focus on training and education. Continued professional development programs, specialized training in emerging areas, and collaborations between academic institutions and forensic laboratories will help produce a skilled and competent workforce.
• Public Awareness and Engagement: Increased public awareness about the importance and limitations of forensic science will play a significant role in the future. Public engagement programs, awareness campaigns, and the dissemination of information about forensic science and its impact on justice will enhance understanding and support for the field.

Overall, the future of forensic science in India holds tremendous potential for advancements in technology, research, collaboration, and quality assurance. These developments will contribute to more accurate and efficient forensic investigations, thereby strengthening the criminal justice system and ensuring a fair and just society.

12.  FUTURE PROSPECTS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE FIELD:

The field of forensic science in India is poised for significant growth and development in the coming years, with several future prospects and opportunities on the horizon. These prospects offer a wide range of opportunities for professionals in the field and have the potential to enhance the effectiveness and reliability of forensic investigations. Here are some key prospects and opportunities for forensic science in India:

• Expansion of DNA Profiling: DNA profiling has already made significant strides in India, but there is still ample room for expansion. The establishment of a comprehensive DNA database and the integration of DNA profiling into routine investigations can greatly enhance the identification of suspects, solve cold cases, and prevent wrongful convictions. With technological advancements, such as rapid DNA analysis and portable DNA sequencers, the speed and efficiency of DNA profiling will improve, further bolstering its importance in forensic investigations.[49]
• Advancements in Digital Forensics: As digital technologies continue to evolve, the field of digital forensics will play an increasingly crucial role. The rise of cybercrime, data breaches, and digital fraud necessitates the development of advanced digital forensic tools and techniques. Future prospects include the expansion of digital forensic laboratories, the enhancement of forensic capabilities for analyzing emerging technologies, and the development of methods to handle large volumes of digital evidence. Additionally, the integration of artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms will aid in automated analysis and the identification of patterns in digital evidence.[50]
• Research and Development: Continued investment in research and development is essential for the future growth of forensic science in India. Research initiatives should focus on improving existing forensic techniques, developing new analytical methods, and addressing emerging challenges. Collaboration between academic institutions, forensic laboratories, and industry partners can lead to the development of innovative technologies and methodologies that can enhance the accuracy and efficiency of forensic investigations.
• Quality Assurance and Standardization: Efforts to ensure consistent quality standards and standardization in forensic science will continue. Accreditation of forensic laboratories, adherence to international best practices, and the establishment of quality control measures will enhance the reliability and credibility of forensic evidence in India. The development of national guidelines and protocols will help standardize forensic practices across the country, ensuring consistency and accuracy in forensic investigations.

The future of forensic science in India is promising, with several exciting prospects and opportunities on the horizon. Technological advancements, interdisciplinary collaboration, research and development, and international collaborations will shape the future landscape of forensic science in the country. With continued investments, specialized training, and a focus on quality assurance, forensic science in India will further strengthen the criminal justice system, aid in the resolution of crimes, and ensure a fair and just society.[51]

13. TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON FORENSIC SCIENCE IN INDIA:

Technological advancements have significantly transformed the field of forensic science in India, revolutionizing the way investigations are conducted and evidence is analyzed. These advancements have had a profound impact on various aspects of forensic science, leading to more accurate, efficient, and reliable forensic investigations. Here are some key technological advancements and their impact on forensic science in India:

• DNA Analysis: The development of advanced DNA analysis techniques has revolutionized forensic science in India. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Short Tandem Repeat (STR) analysis have become standard methods for DNA profiling, enabling the identification of suspects, resolving cold cases, and exonerating the innocent. The increased automation and miniaturization of DNA analysis systems have improved the speed and efficiency of DNA profiling, allowing for faster processing of forensic samples.
• Forensic Imaging and Visualization: Imaging technologies have significantly advanced forensic investigations in India. High-resolution photography, 3D scanning, and laser scanning technologies are used to document crime scenes, capture physical evidence, and reconstruct crime scenes in virtual environments. These technologies help forensic experts visualize and analyze evidence more accurately, assisting in crime scene reconstruction, bloodstain pattern analysis, and facial recognition. [52]
• Ballistics and Firearms Analysis: Technological advancements in ballistics and firearms analysis have enhanced the investigation of firearm-related crimes. Automated ballistic identification systems, such as the Integrated Ballistics Identification System (IBIS), enable the comparison and matching of cartridge cases and bullets to help link firearms to specific crimes. These advancements have expedited the analysis process, resulting in quicker identification and linking of firearms in criminal investigations.
• Forensic Toxicology: Advancements in analytical chemistry and instrumentation have greatly improved the field of forensic toxicology. Sophisticated techniques, such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), allow for the identification and quantification of drugs, poisons, and other toxic substances in biological samples. These advancements have enhanced the ability to detect and analyze substances in postmortem examinations, drug-related crimes, and cases involving intoxication.
• Facial Recognition and Biometrics: Facial recognition technology has become increasingly important in forensic investigations, particularly in the identification of suspects from CCTV footage or other visual evidence. Advances in facial recognition algorithms, coupled with machine learning techniques, have improved the accuracy and efficiency of facial identification, aiding in the identification of unknown individuals and assisting in criminal investigations.
• Data Analytics and Artificial Intelligence: The application of data analytics and artificial intelligence (AI) in forensic science is transforming the field. Data mining, pattern recognition, and machine learning algorithms are used to analyze large volumes of data and identify patterns or trends that may be crucial to investigations. AI-based systems can help automate certain aspects of forensic analysis, such as fingerprint identification and document analysis, increasing efficiency and reducing human error.
• Mobile Forensics: The proliferation of smartphones and mobile devices has led to the emergence of mobile forensics as a specialized area within forensic science. Mobile forensic tools and techniques enable the extraction and analysis of data from mobile devices, including call records, text messages, social media activity, and GPS location data. Mobile forensics has become vital in investigating crimes involving digital communication and cybercrimes.[53]

14. CONCLUSION:

In India, there’s a recognized need to enhance various aspects of forensic science to effectively integrate forensic evidence into the criminal justice system. This involves encouraging skilled medical professionals to participate in medicolegal work and creating a favorable environment for medical witnesses in court. Proposals include establishing a Forensic Council to augment existing laws and promote science in legal proceedings. Essential measures encompass investments in infrastructure, finance, capacity building, training, quality assurance, standardization, and technological progress, all crucial for strengthening forensic science in the country. The significance of forensic science and advanced technologies has grown in investigations and court proceedings, with the court system trusting the dependable outcomes of scientific investigations. Leveraging these technologies can significantly enhance the justice system. However, there’s room for improvement, particularly in addressing system flaws, optimizing forensic evidence use, and ensuring effective deployment of forensic technologies.

To achieve swift and efficient justice, India urgently needs to boost its forensic capabilities, following recommendations from reports such as the one by the National Human Rights Commission. It’s vital that investigating officers receive forensic training to identify the appropriate samples for labs and ensure report quality. Training should also extend to judges, public prosecutors, and other legal participants to effectively present and analyze forensic evidence. Uniform technology and expertise should be maintained across all forensic labs in India to prevent report quality compromise. By addressing these areas and implementing necessary changes, India can strengthen its forensic science capabilities, elevate the role of forensic evidence in the criminal justice system, and ensure the delivery of precise and trustworthy forensic services.

Cite this article as:

Mr. Amol Yadav, “Forensic Science and Its Development in India”, Vol.5 & Issue 3, Law Audience Journal (e-ISSN: 2581-6705), Pages 05 to 34 (24^th August 2023), available at https://www.lawaudience.com/forensic-science-and-its-development-in-india/.

Footnotes & References:

[1] Arindam Datta, Forensic Science: The Legal Scenario, Legal Service India, (July 25, 2023), https://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l153-Forensic-Evidence.html.

[2] Shruti Somya, Forensic Science in Criminal Justice System, Ipleaders (July 25, 2023) https://blog.ipleaders.in/forensic-science-criminal-justice-system/

[3] Jeyasekar, J. John, Dynamics of Indian forensic science research, 24 IGI Global, 121, 125-127 (2018).

[4] Central Fingerprint Bureau – National Crime Records Bureau Ministry of Home Affairs, 2018 (July 25, 2023) https://ncrb.gov.in/.

[5] Perspective Plan for Indian Forensics, 2010 (July 25, 2023) http://dfs.nic.in/pdfs/SPAC

[6] H.W.V Cox, Medical Jurisprudence (The Legal Publishers 2002).

[7] M.D Niketan, Scope of Forensic Science 127 (Legal Desire Books 2017).

[8] ibid

[9] Tewari RK, Application of Forensic Science in Criminal Justice Administration in the Developing Countries, 46 Indian J. Public Health., 786, 788-789 (1999).

[10] Supra note 6, at 4.

[11] Krishna Deo Gaur, Criminal Law & Criminology 491 (Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi 2002).

[12] State of the art Forensic Sciences: For Better Criminal Justice, National Human Rights Commission, New Delhi (May 1999).

[13] B. R. Sharma, Forensic Science in Criminal Investigation and Trial (Universal Law Publication 2018).

[14] Supra note 3, at 3

[15] Committee on Reforms of Criminal Justice System (Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi 2003)

[16] 2014 S.C.C. Online Del. 1952

[17] Saqlain Ahmed v. Emperor, AIR 1936, All. 165

[18] Emperor v. Sahadeo, 15 CrLJ 220, 230

[19] State of U.P. v. Deoman Upadhyaya, AIR 1960 SC 1125

[20] AIR 1980 SC 593

[21] Bai Radha v. State of Gujarat, AIR 1970 SC 1936

[22] Ram Lochan Ahir v. State of W.B., AIR 1963 SC 1074

[23] Jyotirmoy Adhikary, DNA Technology in Administration of Justice 46 (LexisNexis 2007)

[24] Anil v. State of Maharashtra (2014) 4 SCC 69

[25] Vishal Yadav v. State of Uttar Pradesh, 2014 SCC Online Del. 1373

[26] 2014 SCC OnLine Mad 7362

[27] Inspector of Police v. John David, (2011) 5 SCC 509

[28] Criminal Appeal No. 276 OF 2011

[29] The Inspector of Police v. Manoharan, 2015 Cri. LJ 1215

[30] 1996 CriLJ 3944

[31] V.N. Sehgal, Forensic Science in Criminal Investigation & Court Evidence (Selective & Scientific Books 2018).

[32] W. John, III Crime Scene and Evidence Collection Handbook (Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms 1999).

[33] Saferstein, Forensic Science Handbook (Englewood Cliffs 1982).

[34] Supra note 13, at 10.

[35] J.R. Gaur, A Compendium of Forensic Science 56-57 (Shiv Shakti Book Traders 2006).

[36] ibid

[37] Verma, Sunil K., and Gajendra K. Goswami, DNA evidence: Current perspective and future challenges in India 24, FS.INT’L. 180, 183 (2014).

[38] Supra note 23, at 13

[39] Tewari, Ravikumar K., and Kashivatla Venkat Ravikumar, History and development of forensic science in India, 46 J Postgrad Med. 300, 303 (2000).

[40] Supra note 11, at 7.

[41] Jagadeesh, N., The status of forensic medicine in India, 5 Indian J Med Ethics 150, 152-153 (2008).

[42] Supra note 41, at 20.

[43] Supra note 31, at 15

[44] Verma, Sunil K., and Gajendra K. Goswami., DNA evidence: Current perspective and future challenges in India, 241 Forensic Sci. Int. (2014).

[45] Supra note 9, at 6.

[46] Kathane, Prachi, et al., The development, status and future of forensics in India, 3 Forensic Sci. Int. (2021).

[47] Dr. Jai Shankar Singh, Forensic Science in Criminal Investigation 84 (Unique Law Publications 2019).

[48] Butler, John M., The future of forensic DNA analysis, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. 370 (2015).

[49] ibid.

[50] Khandekar, Indrajit, et al., Development of Clinical Forensic Medicine in India A need of time, 32 JIAFM. 76, 85-87 (2010).

[51] Supra note 3, at 3

[52] Supra note 9, at 6.

[53] Ahmed, Rizwan, and Rajiv V. Dharaskar., Mobile forensics: an introduction from Indian law enforcement perspective, 12 Inf. Technol. Manag., (2009).